Graphene is being engineered to block mosquito bites, interfere with parasite growth, and power portable malaria tests with higher sensitivity than standard methods.
(Nanowerk Spotlight) Malaria continues to resist elimination efforts, even as vaccines and treatments become easier to access. Despite substantial progress, the disease remains a serious global threat. According to the World Health Organization, in 2023 there were an estimated 597,000 malaria-related deaths and 263 million cases worldwide. Preventive measures such as insecticide-treated bed nets and indoor spraying remain key strategies, and diagnostic testing and treatments are essential for managing infections.
Yet each tool faces limits. Mosquitoes are developing resistance to insecticides. Parasites are evolving resistance to treatments. Diagnostics often require lab settings or fail to detect infections early or at low levels. Malaria must be managed at many points—from the mosquito bite to parasite growth to detection—but the current tools are not equally effective at every stage.
Materials science is now stepping into this space with a new class of engineered substances: two-dimensional (2D) materials, particularly graphene and its variants. Graphene is a single sheet of carbon atoms arranged in a hexagonal pattern, known for its exceptional strength, electrical conductivity, and chemical reactivity. These properties make it promising for applications that require both sensitivity and selectivity, such as detecting tiny amounts of biomolecules or blocking microscopic particles.
Researchers have proposed using graphene for many health-related functions, but the question is whether it can deliver in complex, real-world settings like malaria-endemic regions.
The authors present a structured roadmap covering synthesis methods, biological interactions, safety issues, and potential for use in both diagnosis and prevention. Their approach is not to suggest a single cure-all, but to identify specific material properties that could address long-standing weaknesses in current malaria tools.
Graphene in the fight against malaria. I) Material based on a diversity of graphene (e.g., 0D, 1D, 2D, 3D, monolayer, multilayer, and nanosheet) with chemical properties of strong strength, high mobility, high transparency, good heat conductivity, biocompatibility, and chemical stability; II) advanced devices (e.g., nanofabrication of graphene quantum dots, surface plasmon resonance biosensing chip) demonstrating antimalarial characteristics can be used for III) malaria treatment (i.e., enhanced predation efficiency of natural enemies, prevented P. falciparum bites by acting as physical barrier, interference P. falciparum sense the human body, the superior loading capacity of graphene oxide nanosheets (GOns) for essential biomolecules required for the growth and development of malaria parasites resulted in the depletion of vital nutrients, diagnosis malaria by rapid detection of DNA, RBC, lactate dehydrogenase (LDH), and nanodrug delivery system with high toxicity against malaria mosquitoes) at IV) different stages of malaria development from injection of sporozoites by an infected mosquito to multiplication of merozoites in RBCs. This review contributes to a better understanding of the opportunities and challenges associated with graphene-based materials in the fight against malaria, offering valuable guidance for future research and development in this important area. (Image: Reprinted from DOI:10.1002/anbr.202300130, CC BY) (click on image to enlarge)
The paper begins by describing how graphene and its common derivatives — including graphene oxide (GO), reduced graphene oxide (rGO), and graphene quantum dots (GQDs) — can be manufactured using physical, chemical, or biological methods. Physical methods include mechanical exfoliation and chemical vapor deposition, which yield high-purity graphene sheets. Chemical methods, such as Hummers’ method, oxidize graphite to produce GO, a more water-dispersible form that is easier to work with in biological environments. Biological or “green” methods use plant extracts or microbes as reducing agents to avoid toxic solvents, and these are seen as more scalable and biocompatible for medical applications. Each method has trade-offs in cost, quality, and environmental impact.
Once produced, graphene-based materials can interact with malaria parasites, mosquitoes, or infected blood cells in ways that potentially disrupt the disease process. The authors identify three primary intervention points: prevention, parasite inhibition, and diagnosis.
In terms of prevention, graphene’s impermeability makes it an effective barrier material. When applied as a coating on fabrics or films, it can block mosquito bites by physically resisting the insect’s proboscis and masking human scent cues such as carbon dioxide and lactic acid. Laboratory studies have demonstrated that multilayer GO coatings on the skin prevent mosquitoes from locating and piercing the surface, reducing bite risk without using chemicals. These barrier films are flexible and can be integrated into clothing or wearable devices. Because the films are stable and resistant to wear, they offer longer-lasting protection than chemical repellents.
The review also discusses using GQDs as larvicides, since these nanoscale particles can penetrate mosquito larvae and disrupt their development. Their small size allows them to pass through biological membranes and interfere with cell function, though the exact mechanism remains under study.
The second application area is inhibition of parasite development. After a person is bitten, the malaria parasite enters the bloodstream and invades red blood cells. GO nanosheets have shown the ability to bind to the parasite’s outer membrane or to essential nutrients in the blood, physically blocking the parasite’s access to the cell. In vitro experiments suggest that GO can capture or neutralize the parasite before it completes its life cycle.
Some graphene derivatives can interfere with protein transport or nutrient absorption, making the environment inside the host less favorable to the parasite. These materials could potentially be delivered through injectable suspensions or oral carriers, though this application remains in early experimental phases.
One of the most promising areas for using graphene in malaria control is early diagnosis. Accurate detection is critical for timely treatment and for preventing the spread of infection, especially in areas with limited medical infrastructure. Traditional diagnostic tools, such as rapid tests and blood smears, often miss low-level infections or require trained personnel and laboratory settings. Graphene offers a way to build more sensitive, portable, and reliable detection devices.
Graphene’s usefulness in sensing comes from its structure. Because it is only one atom thick, any molecule that lands on its surface can quickly alter its electrical or optical properties. This makes it especially good at detecting very small amounts of biological material — such as the proteins, DNA, or altered red blood cells that signal a malaria infection.
The review outlines a number of ways graphene is being used to improve biosensors. One type involves electrical sensors, where graphene is combined with other materials to create field-effect transistors (FETs). These devices detect malaria by measuring how the presence of parasite-related molecules changes the flow of electricity across the sensor. Some of these FETs have been designed to pick up extremely low concentrations of enzymes or DNA from the malaria parasite — down to femtomolar or even zeptomolar levels — which could allow detection well before symptoms appear.
Another category involves optical sensors, particularly those using a method called surface plasmon resonance (SPR). These sensors detect changes in how light reflects off a surface when parasite-related molecules are present. When graphene is added to the SPR setup, it improves the sensitivity by increasing how much the system reacts to these tiny changes. This allows the detection of not only parasite markers but also physical changes in red blood cells that occur during infection. Some SPR sensors can even tell the difference between various stages of the parasite’s life cycle in the blood.
Graphene also helps improve more familiar test formats. For example, it has been used to coat disposable electrodes in simple diagnostic devices, replacing older materials like carbon nanotubes. These graphene-enhanced tests show higher sensitivity and better signal clarity. Because graphene is flexible, it can also be printed onto portable substrates — allowing tests to be made small, durable, and inexpensive.
Some of the most advanced experimental setups use metasurfaces — engineered materials that interact with light in specific ways — in combination with graphene. These platforms can detect subtle shifts in the light signal caused by infected blood, and they offer both high precision and speed. Other research has explored combining graphene with oxide-based layers to create multi-stage sensors that can monitor more than one malaria biomarker at once.
An important aspect of this technology is that it can be integrated into point-of-care devices — portable systems that can be used outside of a laboratory. This means healthcare workers in remote or low-resource settings could potentially perform highly sensitive malaria tests in the field using a drop of blood and get results in minutes.
Finally, some sensors go beyond simply identifying infection. Because malaria often leads to anemia, graphene-based systems have also been developed to monitor hemoglobin levels directly. These electrochemical sensors can detect whether hemoglobin in red blood cells is functioning correctly, which adds another layer of diagnostic value, especially in assessing disease severity.
Taken together, the diagnostic tools described in the review suggest that graphene is not just a material for lab-based experimentation — it can be the foundation for a new generation of fast, accurate, and accessible malaria tests.
The review also considers alternative 2D materials beyond graphene, including transition metal dichalcogenides, hexagonal boron nitride, and black phosphorus. These materials share some properties with graphene but offer tunable electrical behavior and different surface chemistries. For example, molybdenum disulfide has been tested in optical sensors and could be used in hybrid devices. These alternatives expand the possibilities for tailored diagnostic platforms.
However, the review does not overlook the critical issue of safety. While GO and GQDs are generally considered safe at low concentrations, some studies have shown that high doses can trigger inflammation or damage to cells. The risk depends on factors like the size and surface charge of the particles, and how they are produced. Smaller particles may enter cells more easily, while larger ones may accumulate in organs such as the liver and lungs. The authors stress the importance of defining safety thresholds and performing long-term testing to evaluate how these materials behave inside the body.
To address these risks, future research should focus on controlling dosage, improving biodegradability, and designing coatings that limit toxicity. The review also points out that more consistent testing standards are needed, since many studies use different definitions and protocols, making it hard to compare results.
Altogether, the roadmap laid out in this review offers a multi-layered strategy for tackling malaria. Graphene materials could serve as passive barriers on the skin, active inhibitors in the bloodstream, and highly sensitive components of diagnostic tools. Each function targets a different stage in the malaria cycle, offering opportunities to reinforce and complement current public health tools.
While challenges remain in manufacturing, safety, and regulatory approval, the unique properties of these 2D materials give researchers a flexible foundation for new interventions. If developed with care, these materials could become a key part of the broader effort to eliminate malaria.
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ORCID information
Weng Kung Peng (Songshan Lake Materials Laboratory)
, 0000-0002-7984-9319 corresponding author
Mohamed Belmoubarik (University Mohammed VI Polytechnic)
, 0000-0003-3592-1259 corresponding author
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